This emphasis is understandable, as unpleasant emotions are predictors of mental health ( Tamir et al., 2008). Literature on emotion regulation has often emphasized the importance of reducing unpleasant emotional experiences ( Gross, 1999). Furthermore, individuals may benefit from understanding which emotions should be regulated in a given circumstance, and whether these emotions should be increased or decreased ( Lane, 2012). If emotions predict our performance and impact our ability to function effectively, then regulating emotions should be seen as an important psychological skill ( Lane, 2012). Evidence also suggests that emotions are predictive of our performance ( Beedie et al., 2000). For example, emotions can improve our motivation, engagement and proactivity, prepare us for rapid motor responses, and adapt our learning styles according to situational demands (e.g., Fridja, 1986 Clore, 1994 Cahill and van Stegeren, 2003 Foo et al., 2009 Bledow et al., 2011 Mazur and Laguna, 2019). As it is well-established that emotions can play a positive and adaptive role in our thoughts and behaviours, the process of emotion regulation allows us to function more effectively ( Gross, 1999 Hanin, 2010). Individuals monitor their emotions and develop regulation strategies in order to adjust their emotions to a desirable or preferred state ( Lane et al., 2011). The management of our emotions is an integral part of our lives. Research in this field may equip musicians with novel skills for better pursuit of their goals, and may help to maximize health and well-being in musical practice. It will also be important to understand on all levels, including music performance quality as well as health and well-being, the outcomes that may be associated with the use of affect-worsening strategies and unpleasant emotions. Future research should aim to identify the regulated emotional states that best support specific musical practice outcomes in an individual. Musicians who practice for enjoyment may prioritize emotions that maximize only the hedonic benefits. Musicians who pursue expert musical skills may be motivated to experience emotions that combine the instrumental and hedonic benefits of emotions. However, a subgroup of mastery- rather than enjoyment-oriented musicians may seek a mixed emotional state, increasing anger and nervousness in conjunction with a number of pleasant emotions (Wilks λ 1,420 = 14.42 p < 0.01 η p 2 = 0.50). In terms of specific targeted emotions, musicians generally sought to reduce unpleasant emotions, and increase pleasant, energizing emotions in order to support their musical practice. Musicians who strongly endorsed this belief more strongly pursued mastery goals in contrast to enjoyment goals. Greater reported use of affect-worsening strategies was associated with stronger meta-emotion beliefs supporting the possible instrumental benefits of unpleasant emotions ( F = 30.33 p < 0.01 η p 2 = 0.06). Musicians reported using affect-improvement strategies more often than affect-worsening strategies in order to influence how they felt during musical practice. Data were analysed using PCA, MANOVA, subgroup analysis and categorical regression.

Participants then completed a scale assessing specific emotions they would regulate in order to support their musical practice. Via an online questionnaire, 421 musicians reported their goal-orientation, meta-emotion beliefs, and affect-regulation strategies. We examine whether musicians adopt specific, regulated emotional stances which support their goal orientation, and which are in line with their beliefs regarding the functional impact of emotions. The current study investigates emotion regulation behaviour in the context of musical practice. When pursuing a long-term goal, an individual may forego immediate, hedonic emotional reward in order to maximize the instrumental benefits of emotions. This approach suggests that emotions are regulated if they are believed to be beneficial to the pursuit of personally relevant goals. However, there is increasing support for an instrumental approach to emotion regulation. Institute of Musicians’ Medicine, University of Music Carl Maria von Weber, Dresden, GermanyĮmotion regulation literature often emphasizes that individuals regulate their emotions for hedonic reasons.Gerard Breaden Madden * and Hans-Christian Jabusch

Hedonic principle